Varying by application

Functional ingredients include starches, fibers, phosphates and even fruit extracts. These ingredients use different mechanisms to increase yield.

“These mechanisms differ depending on the type of water binding (physical or chemical), the conditions needed to activate the functional ingredient (e.g., temperature, pH), composition and particle size,” says Brock Lundberg, president of research and development, Fiberstar, River Falls, Wisconsin. “Because these functional ingredients provide unique functional benefits, it is common to see blends used to improve yields in specific meat processes.”

With whole muscle proteins, yield enhancement ingredients are typically added via injected or tumbled marinade. For ground and comminuted systems, they can be blended into the product in a dry or liquid solution format.

Historically, phosphate salts have been one of the most common ingredients for yield enhancement in meat and poultry products, as they efficiently increase pH. This maximizes water-binding potential of the proteins.

“Phosphates are also very useful with providing muscle-to-muscle binding,” Jenkins says. “This is critical in boneless hams and whole muscle deli products. They can establish and stabilize meat batter emulsions, which is necessary to maximize yields and deliver the desired texture.”

While phosphates improve yield, they also protect color and flavor by protecting the fat from oxidation by the metal ions inherent in meat, water and other ingredients. This protective function continues during processing, frozen storage and subsequent cooking and reheating, according to Jenkins.

Innophos offers a full line of specialty phosphates and phosphate blends that include sodium and potassium forms, both individually and in combination. Selection is based on the target application, process conditions, water quality and other ingredient characteristics.

“For example, di- and tripolyphosphates will facilitate hydration and binding of whole muscle chicken proteins through a myriad of processes including cooking, storage, freezing, batter and breading, and subsequent reheating,” Jenkins says. “Additionally, the phosphates will protect the fat component from oxidation thus providing clean flavor regardless of repeated heating applications.”

Another familiar yield enhancement ingredient is textured soy protein, which can hold up to six times its weight in water. Two of the most common soy meat extenders, textured soy flour and textured soy concentrate, are often confused.

“Textured soy flour includes the sugars and dietary fiber naturally contained in the soybean, while textured soy concentrate does not,” Katen says. “That distinction has little effect on the functionality or appearance of the two products. The big difference is in the cost. Textured soy flour is usually half the cost of concentrate.

“Regardless of the textured soy protein option used, it’s important to match the right size, shape and color to the meat application,” Katen says. Minced pieces work best in applications such as chili, pizza toppings and taco fillings, where particle definition is important. Flaked particles are best for products such as patties, nuggets and Salisbury steak. The determining factor is how the product is cooked. Flakes hydrate faster in cold water, but are torn apart in high heat or long cooking processes. Minced forms require longer hydration and are typically used in retort, high-heat applications.

In kettle-cooked products such as chili, textured soy protein can absorb the melted fat, improving product appearance and customer appeal. At the same time it is absorbing fat, it’s adding protein, increasing the protein-to-fat ratio in a prepared meat product.